A recent study conducted by Dr. Ana Paula Motta and her colleagues, in collaboration with the Balanggarra Aboriginal Corporation, has identified a new mid-to-late Holocene rock art style in Australia’s northeastern Kimberley region.
The findings are published in the journal Australian Archaeology.
The newly identified linear naturalistic figures (LNF) were previously described as belonging to the Pleistocene Irregular Infill Animal Period (IIAP).
This study was part of the project “Kimberley Visions,” which collected data on and documented over 1,100 archaeological sites. These included 151 rock art sites containing over 4,200 rock art motifs, including rock art belonging to the IIAP.
“The study emerged as many animal motifs did not ‘fit’ with earlier IIAP figures. On further consideration of their body shape, infill, and superimpositions within the Kimberley rock art sequence, it was determined that they belonged to a new and later group of figures,” says Dr. Motta.
In total, 98 motifs from 22 sites were identified in the Drysdale and King George River catchments that did not fit in with traditional IIAP despite having originally been classified as IIAP.
“The IIAP style, despite being defined as containing naturalistic animals with irregular brushstrokes, in reality, contains a high diversity of forms, particularly when infill designs are considered. Therefore, it was first important to disentangle the main attributes of IIAP and then proceed to describe LNF motifs,” says Dr. Motta.
“The main challenges are related to establishing iconographic boundaries between the styles,” Dr. Motta continues. “Therefore, it was important firstly to disentangle the main attributes of IIAP and to then proceed to describe LNF motifs.”
The IIAP style emerged around 17,200 to 13,000 years ago and was characterized by depictions of animals, especially macropods (kangaroos, wallabies, etc.). These images are usually infilled with solid colors and other infill designs. The animals are painted in dynamic poses from various angles.
By contrast, LNF art depicts almost exclusively animals, especially macropods, and is typically painted with a simple linear outline, with partial or no infill in static, profile poses.
“The LNF motifs show regional cohesion across the two study areas (Drysdale River and King George River) and are composed of two main groups of images based on their body shape: geometric and naturalistic. Geometric LNF present angular extremities with a lack of anatomical elements, while naturalistic motifs have a linear outline and detailed anatomical attributes,” Dr. Motta elaborates.
Additionally, the LNF paintings are typically superimposed onto IIAP, Gwion (14,000–12,000 years old), and Static Polychrome art (12,000–9,000 years old) but are found underlying some Wanjina (5,000–historical/contemporary) paintings. This indicates these images were created after the IIAP, Gwion, and Static Polychrome art but before or possibly contemporaneously with Wanjina imagery.
This would make the LNF images much younger than previously assumed and indicates a return to naturalistic animal-motif imagery after centuries of anthropomorphic-motif art styles (Gwion and Static Polychrome).
Dr. Motta explains what might have caused this change, saying, “We proposed that the LNF belongs to the Mid-to-Late Holocene, a period characterized by changing socio-environmental conditions.
“By this time, sea level had stabilized, new lithic technologies were introduced, and there was a possible increase in linguistic diversity. We argue that groups returned to depicting large naturalistic animals, particularly macropods, during a time of increased change, where rock art acted as a mechanism to mediate this change.”
Dr. Motta continues, “The LNF is exclusively composed of zoomorphic motifs and two unidentified plant motifs. Animal motifs identified in LNF style are consistent with other styles in the area, where mammals—and macropods in particular—are the most represented types of figures.
“This high concentration of macropods tells us about their significance for Aboriginal Australians, as food resources, for symbolic functions, and also for everyday life.”
According to Aboriginal creation narratives, humans and non-humans, including animals and plants, had a common origin and a subsequent lifelong bond. This intimate relationship is how totemic systems arose, in which different animals were connected with the laws, customs, and spiritual practices of different Aboriginal groups.
The depiction of these animal motifs may have served as a means to mark territories, express group identity, relationships, spiritual connections, and social regeneration ceremonies during a time in which previously open and mobile societies had become more complex and territorially restricted.
More information: Ana Paula Motta et al, Linear Naturalistic Figures: a new Mid-to-Late Holocene Aboriginal rock art style from the northeast Kimberley, Australia, Australian Archaeology (2025). DOI: 10.1080/03122417.2025.2457860
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